Description of the Diskobolos

Description of the Diskobolos When sculpted in 450 B.C.E., the Diskobolos was originally crafted in bronze. The sculptor, Myron, used a technique called hollow-casting which was common for Greek sculptors of the Archaic period. The title of the sculpture, Diskobolos, means "disk thrower" in Greek. This sculpture has been reproduced thousands of times, including many marble copies made by the Romans, and plaster casts like the one in our library.The Diskobolos is a very detailed sculpture. The musculature of it shows the athletic ability of Greek athletes. The athlete is sculpted in the nude like many of the other Greek sculptures. The sculpture is attempting to capture the art of athletic ability, during strenuous tasks. The athlete is in the climax of his action. Yet in the action, the athlete is concentrating on his task. The lack of expression on his face and the glare of the eyes portray his concentration.Map of "The archaic period in Greece (750 BC – 4...He is leaning forward at the hip. His upper bod y is twisted showing the torque needed to propel the discus. The athlete's legs are bent at the knees. With all the action going on in his body, the athlete still maintains his center of gravity which is necessary for him to complete the throw. The muscles over the entire sculpture are well defined. His shoulders are clearly defined from the rest of his arms. His chest has well defined pectoral muscles as well as abdominal muscles.Athletic ability was very important to the Greek's. For the first time in history we have art portraying athletes in action. Today the entire world still celebrates the Greek Olympic Games. The gamers were created more than 2500 years ago by the Greeks. Today the winners of the games receive medals, but in ancient Greece the athletes received crowns of olives. The athletes were...

CIS 319 Moores Law essays

CIS 319 Moore's Law essays In many business organizations, management has often dealt with a difficult situation. The cost of the technology. The speed of technology. The size of technology. Each of these things, at one time or another has crossed the desktops of management. At one time the cost of technology was outrageously high. The capabilities of the technology were limited, and the size of the hardware was very large and bulky. Well, times have changed. Management can think less and less about these problems of the past as we see the prices of speedy, slim-lined hardware drop. The capabilities of the equipment available today is significantly better than it was just a short time ago. Dr. Gordon E. Moore foresaw todays reality. He said Computers will be more powerful, and will be organized in completely different ways... the improved reliability made possible by integrated circuits will allow the construction of larger processing units. Machines similar to those in existence today (1965) will be built at lower costs and with faster turn-around. (Moore). His statement, published in 1965, is now a reality. Technology is fast, cheap and reliable. What does this mean for management? In general, Management of most any organization can afford to place capable technologies in the hands of their employees. Speed is important for any business. Time is literally money for an organization. With faster processing speeds, employees of an organization can work faster. It is also possible that an employee can do more because of the speed of the technology available to him or her. The speed of communications between employees, clients, etc is also important. The evolving forms of communications are providing organizations with speedy ways to communicate, which also provide employees with the ability to do more and do it faster. The cost of technology is an important part of any organizations overall plan. Prices ar ...

Risk management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Risk management - Essay Example Information about risk communication, and how it helps in the dimension of psychological understanding of risk is included to the paper. The problem of different risk regarding in cycling by different people is raised in the paper. The last section includes concluding response to this problem. The method used is particularized examination of the literature together with the critical summarizing and personal inferences on the topic. It is a widely known fact that every day people engage in some situations that are more or less predetermined risk possibility (Adams, 1995). It depends from person’s occupation, way of life, social environment and many other factors. Still, a big importance hides in person’s perception and understanding of risk. Moreover, relation to risk situations and appropriate communication stay the ground for the risk management. If to talk about the definition of risk in the field of science, we may observe different investigations concerning this term. Rosa (2003) argues that risk is â€Å"a situation or event where something of human value (including humans themselves) is at stake and where the outcome is uncertain†. In other words it is the potential to lose something valuable for the peculiar person. Hazard comes close to the risk theories and this term is defined as some condition with the potential to induce deplorable implications in the risk situations (HSA, 2014). The problem under investigation is the cyclists (push bike riders) and probability of risk in concern to this occupation. The statistic data demonstrates that cycling is rather save occupation in relation to other kind of sports and bicycle is determined as not dangerous vehicle for transporting people. Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Centre (2012) stays the data that â€Å"in 2012, 726 lost their lives in bicycle/motor vehicle crashes, just under two people

Beat by Dre Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Beat by Dre - Essay Example Beats by Dre is a brand name for speakers and headphones produced by a company called Beats Electronics. Beats by Dre has influenced the headphone market and industry by creating successful premium headphone products. According to Dr. Dre, the brand’s focus on bass was motivated by the need to allow music listeners to listen to all the music. The popularity of Beats by Dre was driven by the firm’s marketing practices. The company focused on branding, endorsement deals and product placement. Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine use celebrities and other famous personalities for brand endorsement. Beats by Dre headphones were conceptualized after Dre. Dre and Iovine identified a problem with the quality of audio products offered to customers. They identified the substandard audio quality of Apple’s headphones. Initially, Beats by Dre entered into a partnership with Monster Cable to develop and manufacture headphones and speakers. In order to promote the products, Beats by Dre relied on advertisements and product promotions by musician and rappers (Steinberg, 2014, p. 1). The headphones were also strategically placed in music videos and movies. Beats by Dre also collaborated with celebrities and musicians in order to develop co-branded products. Beats by Dre is the dominant player in the headphone market for headphones priced above $100 (Meara, 2014 p. 1). In 2014, Apple, Inc acquired Beats by Dre in a deal that was valued at $3 billion. Porter five forces is a business tool that analyzes a business situation. The tool is based on five assumptions that determine the competitive advantages or powers in a business environment. The first assumption is the threat of substitution services and products, and the second assumption is the supplier’s bargaining power. The third assumption is the buyer’s bargaining power and the fourth assumption is the threat of new entrants. The last assumption is

Athletes as Role Models Essay Example for Free

Athletes as Role Models Essay Principally, the observance of good quality sportsmanship widens outside the in performance playing field and occupy not only the conduct of the players, but the trainer, umpire and parents as well. In order to comprehend sportsmanship, it is a fine thought to inquire yourself, why are you here? In further words, why you and your kid have determined to contribute in any game? These queries may resonate evident, but inspiration and enthusiasm facilitate to conclude results. Partaking in sports construct a pleasure for strength, produce imperative shared abilities as the youngster crafts new acquaintances, and educates broods how to effort as constituent of the same squad. As a full-time player, the child can build up valuable game skills in spite of this that either his side manage to triumph or is defeated. In actuality, the goal of succeeding insipid in contrast to the better, more precious teachings of determination and supervision of achievement and impedance. This details the necessity of sportsman-like shells. To make certain that the child achieves all of the advantages of sports involvement, it is fundamental that first-class sportsman-like ethics be recognized, illustrated and commended. Sportsmanship initiate with the elementary theory of reverence. In order to make possible just play and gratification on and off the ground the courteous behavior of instructors, comates, challengers, umpires and parents is necessary. There is a lot of case in points of reverential, sportsmanlike demeanor in every sport. The coach is a stature of influence and is supposed to have the players’ top welfare in mind. The participant’s consideration for coach’s recommendation, guidance and trend on the playing field constructs collaboration, leading to victory. According to Weinberg Gould, Optimistic communiquà © with co-players is also very important on the field, and oral support is an important phase of excellent sportsmanship. Censure does not advance solidarity. A performer should by no means get annoyed or noticeably distressed at a teammate for producing a blunder. Forthrightness is on the subject of propping up others and operating mutually to revolve faults into helpful erudition practices. Fair-play submits to each player holding an unbiased probability to trail conquest (Weinberg Gould, 1999). If a person is a sport aficionado and a loving parent, one possibly responded in a positive way to these difficulties. If or either you shriek out or lucratively restrain your confrontation in these state of affairs, you epitomize apposite conduct for every child in attendance. A person’s deeds and how you transact with the aggravation will sway the prospective activities and disposition of parents’ own child. According to Crookes, efficient statement for players by coach encloses six fundamentals; comprehensible, to the point, accurate, absolute, well-mannered and productive (Crooks, 1991). Be a fine functioning representation, and make obvious how to be an excellent sport. Youthful competitors are very easily influenced, and their performance is chiefly fashioned throughout education procedures of mock-up and corroboration. Consequently, coaching and encouragement of good sportsmanship commences with one’s own manners and sportsmanlike conduct. Not anything is wrong with flattering discouraged when circumstances on the sports ground don’t go smoothly for your team. However, if either of the parents desires to demonstrate antagonism, proceed incongruously or quarrel in front of an immature team member, the dreadful performance is liable to rematerialize when the player is dealt with comparable sites. Eventually, person’s dealings, expressions and approaches en route for sport will assist to contour child’s personality and manners like an Athlete. In a study regarding coaches and assessing their influences on athletes, Smith and Smoll experimented further than 70 instructors, did oblique more than 80,000 behaviors, and reviewed almost 1,000 athletes. They set up that athletes countered optimistically to coaches who endowed with upbeat opinion subsequent to a good recital attempt, counteractive coaching and back-up after a performance blunder, and technological order and a judicious quantity of universal support dissimilar to performance quality (Smith 2001, Smoll Smith, 2006). References: * Weinberg, R.S. Gould, D. (1999), Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (2nd Edition). Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. * Crookes (1991), Complan Column Athletics Coach, 25 (3), p. 13 * Smith, R. Smoll, F. (2006). Enhancing coach-athlete relationships: Cognitive-behavioral Principles and Procedures; En J. Dosil (Ed.), the Sport Psychologists Handbook (19-37). Reino Unido: John Wiley Sons.

Investments Essay -- Investing Finances Stock Markets Essays

Investments Nearly three quarters of all U.S. households invest in the stock market. And half of all U.S. households invest in mutual funds—the nation’s fastest growing type of investment. Some investors are saving for a comfortable retirement, other’s for a child’s education. Whatever their goals, shareholders benefit from broad diversification, professional investment management, and ready access to their money. If one decided investing was a sound way to secure their financial future, their next step is to build a balanced portfolio by selecting an investment company and/or suitable investment types. While it may seem daunting—and even overwhelming—there is always someone who stands ready to help an investor. EXPERIENCE Investment Principles In my experiences in dealing with many investment companies, I’ve seen and done many tasks in helping novice and advanced investors chart a course to their financial well being. I have over two years of investment experience with the second largest investment management company in the industry, The Vanguard Group. The company I work for is an old, conservative company with many long-standing values. For example, client-focused values, competitive investment offerings, low costs, diverse fund offerings, and responsive client service. The company was founded on those reasons and continues to prove their great reputation and established lower cost concepts. However, with the changing of the times, so should the company, but in Vanguard’s case its not happening for the benefit of our clients. Vanguard uses a canned financial plan for people we consider conservative, moderate, or aggressive investors. This works in some cases but the problem that I have is every person’s situation is different than the client before. I feel each client should have individual planning based on his or her specific situation. This is a very hard task for a company that has only three offices in the U.S (Valley Forge, PA, Charlotte, NC and Scottsdale, AZ). This benefits the clients because it does lower our costs dramatically, however, it makes things difficult for us to properly plan one’s retirement to the fullest investment potential possible, in other words, making their investments suitable for each client. Practices and Products with Emphasis on Problems of the Small Investor That brings up another problem I’ve had... ...on many exchanges around the world and are continuously traded throughout the day. Thirdly, investors can choose to invest in individual bonds or bond funds. Bonds invest in long-term debt, and they typically earn the largest part of their total returns from interest payments—but they can also generate capital gains or losses. And lastly, investor can invest in mutual funds. Mutual funds are many different companies common stock lumped and managed together making one fund investment. Mutual funds have been around for 70 years and have only grown in popularity in recent years. One can invest in many different types of mutual funds, for example, stock funds, bond funds, and balanced funds. With all that to swallow, one should entrust their money to a company that offers competitive investment performance, has a well-earned reputation for integrity and honestly, and provides investors with responsive and courteous service. If an investor isn’t comfortable managing their own money, they should then consider a professional advisor, because one’s money can’t make money if it’s not invested. Bibliography Morningstar. Real Expectations For Market Returns. 2000. www.morningstar.com.

What Factors affect Britains climate?

Weather is different in every country even city. Climate is the general weather conditions usually found in a particular place. Through climate we can judge the type of fruit or vegetables that grow in a certain area. The Mediterranean climate is good for growing citrus fruits and grapes. Where as the American climate is good for growing bananas and Indian and Pakistani climate is perfect for mangoes. Britain is an island country and is surrounded by sea which gives it a varied climate. We never actually know what the weather will be like, one day it might be sunny the next there might be rain. As we have such a variable climate its hard to predict in general we have warm summers and cool winters our summers our cooler than other countries because we are surrounded by sea but our winters are milder. The main influence on Britain's climate which are important are latitude , altitude ,distance from the sea, ocean currents and the prevailing winds. Latitude: Latitude is the position north or south of the equator measured from 0à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ to 90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. If you are on the equator then your latitude would be zero. If you are near the north pole your latitude would be nearly ninety degrees north and if you are more to the south pole your latitude would be almost 90 degrees south. The further away from the equator you are the colder it is. Therefore when we compare the UK with a country such as Egypt, Egypt is always hotter because its more nearer to the equator than UK. As you can see on the diagram Egypt is more nearer to the equator than Britain and is therefore more warmer.(the diagram is not accurate jus a rough estimation of where the two countries may be) as one gets above tropic of cancer or Capricorn, the climate becomes milder, with warm summers and cold winters. This is known as temperate climate and this is what the UK climate is referred as. At points furthest away from the equator, the climate is colder and is called polar. Altitude: Altitude is the height above sea level, the higher we go the colder it gets altitude may be measured in units such as metres or miles but is usually measured in feet. When I say the higher you go the colder it gets a mere example is on top of mountain peeks, the peeks are way high up and it is much much much colder there and therefore the air there freezes into ice or snow. In Britain there are a few mountains but we are surrounded more by the sea and therefore the mountains don't have a lot of effect in Britain. Other countries such as Nepal that have a lot of mountain ranges are very cold and I personally think its because of the mountains. The temperature falls by about 1 degrees for ever 100 metres above sea level. Distance form the sea: The sea is cooler than land during summer and warmer in winter because it conducts heat slower than land and cools down slower than land in winter. Land heats up faster than sea because its denser and has a bit of metal in it which is a very good conductor heat. The centre of continents are subject to a large range of temperatures. In the summer, temperatures can be very hot and dry as moisture from the sea evaporates before it reaches the centre of the continent. Distance from the sea has a great effect on Britain as you can see on the map that Britain is surrounded by water an therefore makes our summer cooler and our winters are much milder. Prevailing wind direction: prevailing wind direction means the direction wind comes from. Winds that blow from the sea often bring rain to the coast and dry weather to inland areas. Winds that blow to Britain from warm inland areas such as Africa (a warm hot area) will be warm and dry. Winds that blow to Britain from inland areas such as the Netherlands (cold region) will be cold and dry in winter. Britain's prevailing winds come from a south westerly direction over the Atlantic. The winds are cool in the summer and mild in the winter. Because Britain's wind comes from the south west this means it brings fairly warm air because it comes from near the equator. It also brings water vapour from the ocean(as it comes over the Atlantic ocean)- and that means more rain! Ocean currents: The North Atlantic Current (North Atlantic Drift and the North Atlantic Sea Movement) is a powerful warm ocean current that continues the Gulf Stream northeast. Ocean currents can have a great effect on tempratures either reduce it or increase it. The main ocean current that affects UK is the gulf stream. The gulf stream is a warm ocean current in the north atlantic flowing from the gulf of mexico. The gulf of mexico has a higher temprature than uk because its more closer to the equator where as uk is more futher away near the north pole. This means that the air coming from the Gulf of Mexico to Britain is also warm. However, the air is also quite moist as it travels over the Atlantic ocean. This is one reason why Britain often has wet weather. Some local factors affecting climate: There are some local factors which don't have a major affect but do in a way affect all climate such as the two following;One place may be warm and dry because it is sheletered by hills whereas another place may unmasked to wind and rain. Also electronic things, cars leting of gas and central heating also give out heat. So therefore the city is made to be more warmer than the countryside. Air mass Some part of the world is hot some is cold. The result is that the air moves around- like the air in a cold building when you turn on the heater or even the cooker in the kitchen. The air moves around the world in huge blocks known as air masses. An air mass can be thousands of km across. It can be warm or cold or any temperature but depending on where it came from. If for example an air mass comes from the north pole and moves over to the UK there will be cold and dry weather if an air mass coming from the equator (a warm dry place) there will be warm weather. Often two different air masses will meet and clash over the UK which causes sudden changes in weather. Many different air masses cross Britain. That's why our weather changes so fast but if an air mass stays very slow or stays in one place the weather stays the same for days. The weather does not change from day to day at the tropics and poles because they have the same type of air mass all year round. Conclusion: In conclusion, although many factors affect Britain some are more imporant than others. Like the direction in which the suns ray hit the earth (equator). How far away a place is from the equator (latitude) the height above sea level (altitude), the distance from the sea, the direction the winds come from and the ocean currents. But all of these are based on one major factor which I didn't mention the SUN. How the sun affects us is affected by the rotation of the earth, latitude and cloud cover. Cloud cover is affected by the wind, another important factor, and the wind is affected by what it has passed over and altitude. Mountains redirect wind or force it up to form clouds if the wind has passed over a warm sea it will warm and wet, and if it has passed over a cold land mass it will be cold and dry. The sea have a huge impact on the land masses. Minor factors such as how built up a place is can have a big impact but in small areas, and lastly the ocean currents also is realted to which sea it came from then where about the sea is(maybe near the equator). So the sun to me is main factor which affects all climste including Britain's but Britains climate is more or less linked with the factor; the distance from the sea which is as I mentioned before is realated to the sun in all ways. Where we live in britain (england) the temprature in winter is not much less than 0à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C and in summer not much higher than 32à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C in the summer. Also the weather her is damp and there may be lots of sudden changes. Rain is fairly well distributed throughout the year, with February to march being the driest period and October to January the wettest. The Lake District is England's wettest region, receiving and average of 130 inches (330 centimetres) of precipitation( different forms of water falling from the sky) each year.

Money Brings Happiness?

Name: Nguy? n Th? Thu Hi? n Class: Lu? t anh 2 Homework: Many pepple think that money brings happiness. Do you agree with them. Why or why not? Essay: â€Å"Does money bring happiness? † This is the question that everyone has the different answers. I agree with many people about money brings happiness. Money helps we have material comforts and spiritual joy. In fact, if we have no money, we can’t buy goods, clothes, and other necessaries which we need. If we have a lot of money, we can improve our spiritual activities easily.We can go to the movies every weekend, and we can buy any expensive gifts for the people who we love. Money helps the poor have a will-fed life. For the rich, money helps them have pure happiness because they can help the poor and the victims of the disasters. It is said that: â€Å" Money is the root of all evil. † No, it is not true. Money is normally the fruit of labour. The question is how one spends that money. There is nothing good or e vil about money. The same money which can help bring relief to the suffering millions, can be used to build up armaments.The power decides how to spend the money. ————————————————- In summary, the money brings happiness only when we use it properly. The right use of money may bring us a comfortable life and a cheerful heart. Ng? c Tho? i Nguy? n Being poor can certainly bring unhappiness, but having money does not guarantee happiness. Some people assume that because extreme poverty brings extreme unhappiness that the opposite must be true. It is not. There are a lot of very unhappy very rich people.Acquiring money can too easily become the center of life's focus and that can become an obsession. Like most obsessions, it's not a good thing. The Bible says that the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil. That seems to be a universal truth. When you love money more than anything else in life you will find that you can never get enough of it. When life only revolves around getting money you start to obsess over what it can bring you and then you lose any chance of happiness. ————————————————- The happiest people I know are not the richest.They are the people who have learned to be happy with what they have and make the most of life. I have seen people made deeply miserable by poverty, but at the same time I have seen relatively poor people who are happy because they have a positive and thankful attitude about life. Nguyen Khac Hoang: We are living in the 21th century, when many new inventions have discovered. As far as I know, one of them, which has big influence over the world is internet. So do you wonder: â€Å" Why do they like to use the Internet? † The internet always brings a better life.In fact, without internet people are alive and still exist but nobody can deny the benefits of the it. Firstly, it’s a source of information. People can get the latest information about weather forecast, daily events all around the world†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. at any time as well. Before the Internet was invented, people can’t get the information as fast as now, they must watch TV programs, buy newspapers or magazines. Thanks to Internet, we can widen our knowledge in an inexpensive and convenient way. Secondly, Internet is a source of entertainment. If y feel tired of bored, y can listen to music or watch any films y like.Moreover, many people like to play games on the Internet because they are very interesting, wonderful and this doesn’t cost as much. You can also communicate with friends or ralatives by means of e-mail or chatting. Thirdly, Internet is a good mean of education. Teachers can teach on the Internet. Students can find various kinds of tests to do. In addition, they now can use the Internet as a time – saving decide by online schools or online lessons. In conclusion, almost every aspect of our life is concerned with the Internet. It’s a wonderful invention of our modern life. It makes our world a small village.

Multi-Calendar Plans Manage Every Client With CoSchedule

Multi-Calendar Plans Manage Every Client With As a marketing agency, managing multiple clients used to be tough. Client A used a Google Sheet for their marketing schedule.  Bleh. Client B used  a clunky project management tool. Client C used email. #nightmare ^ You get the picture. Now that hassle, confusion, and time-suck of managing multiple clients marketing projects is over. You can finally organize every project from every client in one place. And youre doing it with multi-calendar, the newest feature in your most beloved marketing + social media project management tool, . :) Lets boost your marketing agencys efficiency + effectiveness, shall we? Manage Multiple Clients With Multi-Calendar [New Feature]Organize Every Project From  Every Client In 1  Place Imagine a life without complex spreadsheets only you (or your clients) understand. What about ditching confusing email threads altogether? Awww, the good life. ^ But it  is totally possible. has always been  the #1 marketing calendar for everything you need organized. And now you  can easily manage multiple clients in by giving each of them their own  calendar. That gives you, as the efficient marketing agency you are ;), one place to work  on all of your clients projects. Every calendar helps you plan + execute tons of different types of content  and social media campaigns. So  you can customize each clients calendar for their specific needs. That gives you incredible organizational power with a single login for you + a beautiful experience for your clients. Agencies! Organize every #marketing project from every client in 1 place.Simplify Your Team + Client Workflows And  Collaboration Process boosts efficiency. And many  clients + projects have different requirements. So use to easily customize your workflows for each client + project as much as you need. makes it easy to create  a Task Template and save it to easily apply again  later (which, lets face it, saves you a ton of time on those repeat projects). Plus, you can  customize an unlimited amount of Task Templates for every client. That gives you complete control  to  delight every client. Youll also ditch long email threads by  attaching the communication to your projects in . That gives everyone  working on a project the complete picture of your progress at a glance. (And that also means zero  digging through a busy email inbox for updates.) All of this organization keeps your clients in the loop + keeps projects moving forward + helps you hit deadlines. Stay on track. Execute faster. Avoid the busywork. +  marketing agencies #FTWCustomize To Fit Your Clients Needs Some of your clients  may be building their following on Instagram. Others focus specifically on their WordPress blog. Others are huge fans of creating their content in Google Docs. ^ You can customize each of your clients experiences within their calendars. That makes your go-to source for starting any project. And as your marketing agency grows (which, lets be honest, youre crushing it), scales with you. Customize your team + client workflows + integrations with !Improve Client Retention With Data-Driven Results Prove the ROI of the work you do with real  data everyone can understand! You  and your clients will see  the success of every social media message you share. And youll also see the success of your content as a whole. When you scale to Multi-Calendar Plus or Pro plans, youll also see the results of your entire social media strategy in one place with your Social Engagement Report. Easily show your clients your success to  maintain  long-term business for your marketing agency!

Which Material Withstand a Fire

Which Material Withstand a Fire Introduction Fire presents one of the greatest threats to property. As such, building design and construction must take into account the wide range of fire safety features.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Which Material Withstand a Fire specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Not only must the interiors and contents of buildings be protected from the dangers of fire; the building site itself must be planned to ensure accessibility of both fire departments and water suppliers. Building plan and construction procedures have changed considerably during the past century (Allen and Iano 12). A century ago, design techniques and materials, such as structural steel, reinforced concrete, and slab construction, was unknown and unimagined. In that era, major fires were common occurrences in cities. Due to combustible construction and poor city planning, whole cities were often destroyed by fire. As a result of those disaster s, increased attention was given to fire safety in building design. This paper examines the building materials that can withstand fire. Fire safety in buildings through design Before a building designer can make effective decisions relating to fire safety design, the needs of the client regarding the function of the building and the general and unique conditions that are to be incorporated into the building must be clearly identified. Decisions regarding the fire safety design and construction of the building should be made in the following areas: life safety; property protection; and continuity of operations (Association of Fire Chiefs International 12). These objectives describe the degree to which the building should protect its occupants, property contents, continuity of operations, and neighbors. The objectives should be quantified wherever possible, rather than stated in broad or general terms. Design considerations for life safety must address the question of who the occupant s of the house are and what they will be doing most of the time. The identification of a specific function patterns and constraints is vital in designing fire protection features that recognize occupant conditions and activities (Allen and Iano 15). There is an important question to be asked about the design of buildings with regard to protection of property. The requirements with regard to protection of property within a building are often fairly easy to identify. Materials of high value that are particularly susceptible to fire and or smoke can usually be identified in advance of building design. For instance, vital records that cannot be replaced easily or quickly can be identified in advance as needing special fire protection design considerations (Allen and Iano 19).Advertising Looking for research paper on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Continuity of operations, the third major area of b uilding design decision-making, must take into consideration those functions conducted in a building that are vital to continuing operation, and that cannot be transferred to another location (Association of Fire Chiefs International 38). In this regard, the owner must identify for the designer the amount of time an operation can be suspended without completely suspending total operations. Indirect loss or loss of business income must be considered as a part of this downtime. The degree of protection required in fire-safe building design varies with the number and scope of operations that are nontransferable (National Fire Protection Association 44). When the designer and owner either consciously or unconsciously overlook or ignore the possibility of fire in the building to be constructed, the building and its occupants are endangered (Allen and Iano 28). The broad approach to the fire-safe design of a building requires a clear understanding of the building’s function, the nu mber and kinds of people who will be using it, and the kinds of things they will be doing. In addition, appropriate construction and protection features must be provided for the protection of the contents and, particularly for mercantile and industrial buildings, to ensure the continuity of operations if a fire should occur (Domone 35). The fire-safety of a building will depend first on what is done to prevent a fire from staring in the building, and second on what is done through design, construction, and management to minimize the spread of fire if and when it happens. Good housekeeping is perhaps the major factor in both fire prevention and control (Allen and Iano 48). Keeping the fuel load down only lessens the amount of material that can be ignited, but provides less material that can be consumed if a fire breaks out. Once a fire has started, its spread will depend on the design of the building, materials used in construction, building furnishings and contents, methods of venti lation, and fire suppression systems, if any (National Fire Protection Association 59). These elements are within the decision-making authority of various members of the design team, based on the assumption that their fire-safety objectives are clearly defined by management, the owners, and other responsible partners, both from the private and public sectors.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Which Material Withstand a Fire specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The design and construction elements should be organized in a manner that can give a quick overview of the major aspects that must be considered for fire-safety. They should also show features that include both active and passive design and construction considerations (Association of Fire Chiefs International 62). Two major categories of decisions should be made early in the design process of a building in order to provide effective fire-safe design. Early considerations should be given to both the interior building functions and exterior site planning. Building fire defenses, both active and passive, should be designed in such a way that the building itself assists in the manual suppression of fire (National Fire Protection Association 70). Interior design, circulation patterns, materials used in finishing, material, and building services are all central fire-safety factors in building plan. Building design also has a major influence of the effectiveness of the fire department operations. As a result, manual fire suppression activities should be considered during all architectural design phases. One of the important considerations in building design is access to the fire area (Allen and Iano 59). In larger and more complex buildings, serious fires over the years have brought improvements in building design to facilitate fire department operations. The larger the building, the important access for firefighting becomes. In some buildin gs where the fire fighters cannot function effectively, the best solution is provision of a complete automatic sprinkler system, supplemented by a standpipe system for fire department use (Domone 60). Ventilation is of vital importance in removing smoking, gases, and heat so that fire fighters can reach the seat of ablaze. It is difficult, if not impossible, to ventilate a building unless appropriate skylights, roof hatches, and similar devices are provided when the building is constructed. Ventilation of building spaces performs the following important functions. To begin with, it protects (Allen and Iano 62). It aids in the enhancement of the environment close to the fire by elimination of smoke and heat. This enhances fire fighters to press forward close to the fire to put it out with the least time, water, and damage (Association of Fire Chiefs International 71). It enhances control of the spread or course of fire by creating air currents that make the fire go in a specified dir ection. This enables protection of the property or those occupying the building. Lastly, it helps in the provision of a release for unburned, flammable gases before they get a flammable mixture, hence, curbing a back draft or smoke explosion (National Fire Protection Association 81).Advertising Looking for research paper on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Connections for sprinklers and standpipes must be carefully located and clearly marked. The larger and taller the building becomes, the greater the volume and pressure of water that will be needed for a potential fire (Allen and Iano 65). Water damage may be very costly unless adequate measures, such as floor drains and scuppers, have been incorporated into the building design. Confinement of a fire in a high-rise building can only be accomplished by careful design and planning for the whole building. As buildings increase in size and complexity, more dependence on suppression systems is necessary (Domone 74). Appropriate building blueprint for fire protection should take in a number of factors outside the building itself. The building site will affect the design. Among the significant considerations are traffic and transportation conditions, fire department accessibility and water supply. Inadequate water supply and poor spacing of hydrants have contributed to the loss of many buil dings (Association of Fire Chiefs International 79). Fire department accessibility response is a vital factor in building design considerations. Traffic access routes, traffic congestion at times of the day, traffic congestion from highway entrances and exits, and limited access highways have significant effects on fire department response distances and response time, and must be taken into account by building designers in selecting appropriate fire defenses for a building (National Fire Protection Association 87). As such, building designers must ensure that the building is easily accessible to fire apparatus. However, such accessibility is not always possible. When apparatus cannot come close enough to the building to be used effectively, equipment such as aerial ladders, elevating platforms and water tower apparatus can be rendered useless (Allen and Iano 79). Another important consideration in designing a house for fire safety is the water supply to the site. A building designer must ensure that the water mains are adequate and that the hydrants are properly located. The more congested the area of the building is to be located, the important it is to plan in advance what the fire department may face in its attack, if a fire occurs on the property (Domone 85). An adequate water supply delivered with the necessary pressure is required to control fire properly and adequately. The designer must also account for the water supply demands for fixed suppression systems, such as sprinklers and standpipes. These demands may reduce the supply available to the fire apparatus (National Fire Protection Association 98). Another consideration in the design of a building is the possibility of damage from a fire in an adjoining building. The building may be exposed to heat radiated horizontally by flames from the windows of the burning neighboring building. If the exposed building is taller that the burning building, flames coming from the roof of the burning building can i mpinge on and damage the exposed building (National Fire Protection Association 100). The damage form an exposed building can be severe. It is dependent on the amount of heat produced and length of exposure, the fuel load in the exposed building, and the construction and protection of the walls and roof of the exposed building. Other factors that can contribute to this severity include the distance of separation, wind direction, and accessibility of fire fighters (Association of Fire Chiefs International 125). Fire severity is a description of the total energy of a fire, and involves both the temperatures developed within the exposing fire and the duration of the burning. The severity of exposure is calculated on the width and height and the percentage of openings in the exposing wall areas and the estimated fire loadings of the buildings involved (Domone 79). Building designers should be aware that blank walls, closing wall openings, use of automatic deluge water curtains, which di scharge water directly on one of the vertical surfaces of the exposed building, and use of wired glass instead of ordinary glass could reduce the separation distance hazards between the exposing buildings (Allen and Iano 93). Materials that can withstand fire: reinforced steel and concrete The previous discussion has dealt with the considerations that should be put into place in designing a house in order to ensure that it is fire-safe. In the next section, this paper examines how buildings can be fire-safe using construction materials that can withstand fire. Construction materials that can withstand fire are found in Type I construction (Domone 86). Type I construction, also known as fire-resistive construction is the most fire-resistive category of building construction. It is used for buildings designed for large numbers of people, buildings with a high life-safety hazard, tall buildings, large-area buildings and buildings containing special hazards. Type I construction is commo nly found in schools, hospitals, and high-rise buildings (Allen and Iano 95). A building with Type I construction can withstand and contain fire for a longer period of time than buildings with Type II, III, IV, or V. The fire resistance and combustibility of all building materials are carefully evaluated, and each building component must be engineered to contribute to fire resistance of the entire building to warrant this classification. All of the structural members and components used in Type I construction must be made of noncombustible materials, such as steel, concrete, or limited combustible materials such as gypsum board. In addition, the structure must be constructed or protected so that there are at least two hours of fire resistance (National Fire Protection Association 129). If a Type I building exceeds specific height and area limitations, codes generally require the use of fire-resistive walls or floors to subdivide it into compartments. A compartment might consist of a single floor in a high-rise building or a part of a floor in a large area building. In any event, a fire in one compartment should to spread to any other parts of the building. To ensure that fire is contained, stairways, elevators shafts, and utility shafts should be enclosed in construction that prevents fire from spreading from floor to the floor or from compartment to compartment (Association of Fire Chiefs International 132). Steel is the most vital metal used in construction of buildings. It is normally accessible and relatively cheap. Without it, construction would be restricted to enormous all-masonry buildings with domed floors, or masonry wall-bearing buildings with wooden floors. Steel is very tough. Its compressive power is equal to its tensile strength. Its shear strength is almost equal to its tensile strength. This great strength makes steel members of comparatively small mass to hold heavy loads, mainly when used in trusses. Nevertheless, fire resistance, is a funct ion of mass. Such tough but lightweight members have little intrinsic fire resistance (Allen and Iano 112). Steel has several important characteristics to consider regarding its behavior in fire. To begin with, considerable elongation can occur in a steel member at normal fire temperatures. This elongation may lead to the disturbance of building components, such as masonry adjacent to the ends of the steel. If the steel cannot get longer because of restriction, it will crumple or overturn. This can be significant when other components rest on a steel chamber. At higher temperatures, steel members completely fail, bringing about the collapse of the structure. Another characteristic of steel is that it is a good conductor. As such, it transmits heat readily (Association of Fire Chiefs International 172). Often the first structure that comes to mind when steel is mentioned as a construction material is the high-rise building. The development of steel framing an engineering technique ma de it possible to erect tall buildings. The strength of steel, the consistency of its structural characteristics, and its ability to be connected to other structural elements so that loads can be adequately transferred are all-important to the use of steel as a building material. Only a few specialized buildings, such as fiberglass buildings, that are invisible to electromagnetic radiation or less affected by corrosive atmospheres, are built without steel (Domone 116). The fire effect on steel can be crucial to the stability of almost any of the building during a fire incident. Steel fire escapes are provided on many buildings. If, in good condition, they can be useful, not only in evacuating occupants, but also for fire department access. Steel reinforcing bars and cold-drawn steel tendons are vital to concrete construction in providing the tensile strength that concrete lacks. Steel is used in concrete flooring systems. Corrugated steel provides ‘left in place’ forms, which are often designed to react together with the concrete under load, thus forming a composite (Allen and Iano 121). Apart from steel, the other building material that can withstand fire is concrete. Although concrete is taken to be a contemporary building material, it has been used in the past millennia. The use of concrete has changed dramatically over the last century as poor understanding about the material, and how it is made has improved. The industry continues to evolve today as experience grows and its versatility and cost effectiveness is exploited. The design, construction method, materials used and standards of workmanship employed in the creation of a concrete structure will vary enormously according to the date of its construction. All these factors will affect the durability of the structure, and may result in particular deterioration problems that correlate to the construction period (Macdonald 103). The ability of concrete to withstand fire is dependent on the ag gregates forming it. Concrete is made up of aggregates of various sizes, broadly categorized as fine (commonly sand), and coarse (typically crushed stone or gravel), combined with cement paste (a mixture of cement and water), which acts as a binder (Macdonald 115). The greater proportion of concrete is aggregate, known as the filler, which is bulky and relatively cheaper than the cement. As the constituents of concrete derive from stone, it has been known variously as artificial stone, cast stone, reconstructed stone and reconstituted stone (Macdonald 117). The most commonly used binder in modern concrete is Portland cement. Portland cement is commercially manufactured by blending limestone or chalk with clays that contain alumina, silica, lime, iron oxide and magnesia. The compounds are heated together to high temperatures. During this process, the calcium carbonate in the limestone loses carbon dioxide, leaving the lime. The products in the clays, such as alumina and silica, are w hat provide the hydraulic properties (Macdonald 119). The heating process chemically combines these materials through partial melting of the silicates and vitrification on cooling to form compounds of silicates, aluminates and aluminosilicates in the form of a clinker. This is then finely grounded to a powder. Other cementitious binders used as partial replacements for Portland cement include blast furnace, pulverized fly ash, and silica-fume cement replacement materials. The use of different binder types varies the characteristics of the concrete, in particular its permeability to water and hence its durability (Macdonald 120). In order for concrete to withstand fire, it has to be reinforced. Concrete is known to be very strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension. To overcome this deficiency when concrete is used as a structural building material, and to combat early shrinkage and control subsequent diurnal thermal expansion and contraction, reinforcement is included in areas where tension occurs to create reinforced concrete. Steel and concrete posses similar coefficients of thermal expansion and form an effective composite section. Concrete is mixed wet, poured around the placed reinforcement into the formwork, and compacted or vibrated to expel air (Domone 142). Due to the importance of assessing the fire resistance of buildings and building materials, a great deal of work has been done to develop test procedures that assess the way building materials and structural assemblies perform under fire conditions. It is important to keep in mind that these tests must be repeatable in order to obtain uniform results from different testing laboratories. There is a possibility of approximating the damage that is caused by fire in a building. This can be achieved by examining the types and amount of materials that can burn in the building, as well as the way they are distributed. These two factors not only indicate the rate of combustion and the duration o f the fire, but also the difficult that might be encountered when automatic suppression systems are activated or when manual suppression is attempted (Allen and Iano 134). Conclusion In conclusion, in terms of fire protection, building design and construction practices have improved over the years, but far too many buildings are still not fire-safe. Many building designers, either through ignorance of for reasons of economy, do not put the necessary precautions to ensure that buildings are fire-safe. Highly combustibles contents, even in a well-designed building, can cause severe fire damage. Unprotected steel can fail quickly in a fire. Tests can be made to determine the ability of the structural elements of a building to withstand fire. Fire safety is taken for granted by many individuals until a serious fire occurs. Education of building designers, building owners, and the public can lead to truly fire-safe building design. Allen, Edward and Joseph Iano. Fundamentals of Building Construction Materials and Methods. New York: John Wiley Sons, 2011. Association of Fire Chiefs International. Fire Inspector: Principles and Practice. New York: Jones Barlett, 2011. Domone, Peter. Construction Materials, their Nature and Behaviors. London: Taylor Francis, 2010. Macdonald, Susan. Concrete: Building Pathology. New York: John Wiley Sons, 2003. National Fire Protection Association. National Fire Codes. New York: Jones Barlett, 2006.

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